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The public policy questions about the PHEV ranged from the broadest macro-issues to the specifics of implementation strategies, with more actual agreement about the latter. At the broader level, there are issues about system architecture and about industrial policy that need resolution before a national plan for action can be developed, even though there was enthusiasm for such a major initiative, including Senator Lamar Alexander’s strong call for a new Manhattan Project—a logical position for the Senator from Tennessee.
     At the macro-level, there is no consensus as yet on the architecture for a system of PHEV’s although the majority of participants envision an emphasis on charging stations at home and work locations, with some as yet undeveloped means of accommodating those who do not garage their vehicle. The need for range and flexibility would be met through the on-vehicle availability of a conventionally fueled generator of electricity or through the so-called parallel hybrid approach in which both mechanical and electrical power is used.

National Approach in Denmark and Israel

Contrasting to this system architecture is the one being explored in Israel and Denmark. As a matter of national policy, Israel is attempting to move to an oil-free economy. In the automotive world, this would be accomplished through widespread deployment of electric vehicles (made attractive through price and tax incentives) supported by a ubiquitous network of charging stations. The consumer would contract for support much like a cell-phone contract, and would charge as needed, including a premium option for a very quick swap-out of batteries in lieu of a recharge. Provision of this network would be the responsibility of one or more contractors operating under a government-allocated concession.
     The other key policy issue is one of industrial policy. While most participants agreed that the government should not “pick winners,” there needs to be an emphasis on U.S. production capacity both for vehicles and batteries. Tom Friedman, moderating one of the sessions, opened with the hope that the question was not “how fast can we get the Chinese to produce these vehicles” and that this was an Intel issue not a Wal*Mart issue. Another participant noted that we don’t want to trade a dependence of Middle East oil for a dependence on Far East batteries.
     Providing the direction to achieve the broader goal is recognized as a major challenge for our political system, which is more comfortable dealing with specific strategies such as the tax incentives needed to support the technology in its ramp-up to mass production, support through targeted government procurement and the provision of research and development funding to bring on the needed technologies. The broader goal will require leadership more in the nature of the Manhattan or Apollo project.

Breaking Up Is Hard to Do

A recurring theme was that new and strong partnerships will be required between the automotive and all aspects of the electric industry. Participation by the utilities and their associations is already in place, but it will take a major effort to supplant the century-long relationship between the auto and petroleum industries. Utility leaders spoke of the changes that would be needed in their production, distribution and pricing systems to give reliable support to the hybrid fleet. They were clearly more comfortable with the thought that this fleet would be a customer for off-peak generating capacity and even a source of storage for drawdown during peak demand periods.
     The auto industry, notably Ford and General Motors, were quite positive about the opportunities they see, especially if appropriate governmental policies are in place. GM use the occasion to promote their new Chevrolet Volt vehicle, now scheduled for rollout in 2010. The Volt will in fact be a step forward in technology, solely dependent on a electric drive propulsion, with the on board power only providing for recharging the batteries. This would also provide a bridge to an ultimate fuel cell or hydrogen powered vehicle, which GM still sees in the more distant future.
     As with any such complex issue, there are still many loose ends beyond those noted for government support. Conversion away from the system of liquid fuel leaves open the question of how user taxes are to be collected to support the transport system. Auto dealers called for a new paradigm of pricing, since their more profitable support work would be minimized. There are issues of safety that need careful study to avoid unintended consequences in the production, maintenance, use and disposal of the vehicle and batteries.                 - MLD

Thanks to recent corporate decisions and technological breakthroughs, the prospect of actually owning and driving a fully-electric or plug-in hybrid car is closer to reality. And, if some of the latest models are any indication, you won’t have to sacrifice speed or power or worry about the price of gasoline. While some of the major automobile companies are leading the way, other, smaller startup companies or organizations, especially in the San Francisco Bay Area, have also made their mark.
     After announcing the iQ car, Toyota President Katsuaki Watanabe announced that Toyota would also be selling a plug-in hybrid with a lithium-ion battery by 2010, at the latest. Because the crucial technology for plug-in hybrids or purely electrical vehicles is an adequate power storage capacity, Toyota’s engineers still have to design a more efficient lithium-ion battery that can be mass produced and be cost effective.
     General Motors and Daimler AG also revealed plans at Geneva to develop lithium-ion hybrids in which an electric motor assists combustion but does not propel the car. Spurred by tougher European fleet standards by 2012, Daimler plans to make a hybrid version of its Mercedes-Benz top-of-the-line model available by 2009. Though it will not match the emissions performance of smaller, more efficient cars, it will be the most efficient luxury car available.
     General Motors’ version is a Saab concept car which releases very low carbon emissions running on gasoline, and slightly less on ethanol. Unlike the GM’s Volt, in which an electric motor powers the wheels and the gasoline motor recharges the battery, the Saab uses a smaller battery which assists the internal combustion engine. While GM plans to have a market-ready model by 2010, both GM and Daimler AG will have to perfect batteries that do not overheat, and at a reasonable cost.
     Rumors were also circulating that Toyota is working on another concept car that will combine plug-in hybrid and flex-fuel technologies, weigh one third of the Prius, and go 140 miles on a gallon of gas.

A New Detroit in the Bay Area

Better known for its breakthroughs in electronics and personal computers, Silicon Valley is also leading the way in developing new car technology. In the last few years, venture capitalists have invested several hundred million dollars in startup companies developing electrical vehicles in the South Bay.
     Using the lessons from designing a solar-powered car for the American Solar Challenge, a team of former Stanford students formed Tesla Motors five years ago and designed a two-seater electrically-powered sports car. The prototype runs on a large lithium-ion storage battery that weighs 1,000 pounds; nevertheless, it can reach 60 miles per hour in 4 seconds, go 120 miles per hour and travel 200 miles on a single charge.
     Because of its fast acceleration, without noise or exhaust, the engineers had to develop a new transmission, and it is hoped that new battery technology will not only reduce the size of the battery and its cost, but also make it lighter and more efficient. While the electric power unit is adequate for most daily trips, an on-board generator would be available for longer trips.
     Although a number of celebrities have made deposits for cars that will be delivered this spring, including Governor Schwarzenegger, Tesla Motors’ future may not be in competing with the large car manufacturers, but in selling its power train technology to them. Like CalCars in Palo Alto, this startup company has helped to convince major car manufacturers to develop more fuel-efficient and less polluting cars. Tesla may have its $50,000 White Star sedan in showrooms in 2010, when GM plans to sell its sporty Volt.
     Also using lithium-ion batteries, Santa Rosa’s Thunderstruck Motors in the North Bay has produced an electric powered motorcycle which recently set two records at Infineon racetrack. It is silent and emits no exhaust. A small company, it provides electric kits to convert gasoline motorcycles or scooters to electricity.
     Using the schematics developed by CalCars and made available free, Plug-in Supply in Petaluma, California, sells kits to convert a Toyota Prius Hybrid into a plug-in hybrid vehicle which can go up to 40 miles on a single charge from a household circuit. For faster speeds or longer distances, the gasoline motor kicks in, but the conversion kit increases mileage from 45 to 100 miles per gallon. Though the cost of conversion (as much as $12,000) outweighs the savings, and currently invalidates the Prius warranty, buyers feel good about protecting the environment and Toyota plans to market its own plug-in hybrid next year. As the technology improves and more kits are produced, the costs will also come down, while the price of gasoline continues to rise.
     One of the question marks about electric vehicles is how the electricity is produced to power the car. Since a much greater amount of the electricity generated in California is from renewable sources -- solar, wind, hydroelectric and geothermal -- electric cars effectively run cleaner than they would in the Midwest, where much of the power is generated by coal-burning power plants. In fact, because of the heightened interest and already extensive use of electric vehicles in the Bay Area, Project Better Place in Palo Alto raised $200 million of new capital in 2007 to develop fuel stations for electric vehicles.

Plug-In Hybrids

As CalCars and others have demonstrated, the technology for plug-in hybrid (PHEV) vehicles already exists, and this non-profit seizes every opportunity to present the plug-in Prius hybrids which it introduced in 2004. Unlike ethanol, other biofuels or hydrogen, the infrastructure for plug-in hybrids is already in place: an electric grid, a 120-volt household socket and an extension cord. By adding a larger battery and some electronic connections, you can convert a Prius to a PHEV which can go up to 40 miles on an electric charge without kicking in the gasoline engine. This will greatly reduce the cost of driving, produce fewer emissions even when taken off the national grid (50% coal), and reduce costly imports of oil.

Technological Revolution

Clearly, the automobile industry is capable of gearing up and developing more fuel-efficient and cleaner vehicles. Encouraged by higher government emissions standards, public awareness and increasing costs of fossil fuels, we may be on the brink of a revolutionary breakthrough in automobile propulsion. Thanks to more renewable sources of energy, new fuels and energy technology, not only private transportation, but all forms of transport, power generation, lighting, heating and air conditioning, as well as manufacturing, are likely to be transformed.
     While the development of more efficient high-end luxury cars is noteworthy, is it progress when smaller, more fuel-efficient automobiles or public transit would consume less energy and pollute less, thereby harming the planet less? The owner of the luxury car may feel better about releasing fewer emissions than driving an old model, but he or she is still contributing significantly more to global warming.
     Whether traveling in private jets and purchasing carbon offsets or building a huge second home using green materials and techniques, those who consume more put more pressure on the planet to produce those extra resources and in the process, generate more greenhouse gasses. While China and India are catching up, it is the wealthy industrialized countries which have released the greatest quantity of carbon emissions and created the threat of global warming. According to most scenarios, it will also be the poorest of the poor who will suffer the most from climate change.
          - DAW

Compressed-Air Powers a Small European Car Up to 70 mph

In Europe, a persistent inventor has developed an emissions-free small passenger car. Located in Luxembourg, Moteur plans to market its MiniCATs in France. Using lightweight composite materials, these passenger cars employ electric pumps to compress air that powers the pistons to achieve speeds of 70 mph, traveling 50 miles or more at lower speeds.
     The pumps can be recharged at home by plugging into an electric socket for four hours, costing only $2.50 at French electricity rates. The only exhaust from air-powered MiniCATS is cold air. More expensive hybrid versions could run on a combination of compressed air and gasoline, or on bio-fuels.
     Like other vehicles using electricity as the major source of power, operating costs, efficiency and emissions are ultimately determined by how the electric power is generated.
      - DAW

In the wake of all the studies and reports on global warming and an unstable Middle East, various proposals have been made to reduce carbon emissions and increase energy independence. While ethanol, biofuels, hydrogen and flex cars have received most of the attention, a grassroots movement is developing an emissions free car and trying to convince automakers to manufacture plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs).
     Since General Motors, Ford and Toyota manufactured viable electric cars to meet a California mandate in the 1990s, the technology for PHEVs already exists. Tragically, that project was abandoned because of effective lobbying by the oil and auto industries and the conclusion that gas-guzzling SUVs were much more profitable than electric cars, while contending that the public was not ready for zero-emissions electric cars. After repossessing its leased electric cars, GM had them all destroyed. This is well documented in the film "Who Killed the Electric Car."
     Before considering the advantages of PHEVs, let us look first at why ethanol derived from corn or biofuels may not significantly reduce carbon emissions or be cost effective. While corn ethanol may burn cleaner than gasoline and is produced domestically, it requires fossil fuels to produce and transport, conversion of land to crop production can release stored carbon, its production consumes almost as much energy as it produces, and it generates less energy by volume than other fuels. The use of fertilizers and pesticides to grow corn also increases the risk of soil depletion and water pollution from runoff.
     Thanks to a federal subsidy, the extraction of ethanol from corn is currently profitable, but more expensive corn, cheaper oil or other sources of energy may reduce profit margins. Last year the price of corn doubled, increasing the cost of meat as well as other grains as more land was planted in corn. Until other non-food crops and less energy-intensive processing methods are developed, ethanol does not offer a viable solution to our car fuel problem.

Your Car As Home Appliance

Plug-in hybrids, however, offer an alternative that has great potential for reducing carbon emissions and increasing energy independence. Using current technology, PHEV prototypes have already been created by converting standard hybrids into plug-in hybrids, which are potentially emissions free.
     Rather than relying on electric motors primarily to start up, these converted hybrids use electricity as the primary fuel, charged through an electrical outlet and going as far as 125 miles on the power stored in a special battery. Gasoline or, ideally, clean diesel or a biofuel, provides the backup power once the electric charge has been drained.
     Since PHEVs would draw from the electric grid, the amount of carbon released would be determined by how the electricity is produced. If coal, oil or natural gas were burned to generate the electric power used by the PHEVs, carbon emissions would be released. But if renewable sources of power are used — hydroelectric, thermal, solar or wind — which is increasingly the case in California, the PHEVs would be emissions free.
     Even if fossil fuels were used to generate the electric power, less carbon dioxide would be released from producing the electricity to charge a PHEV than from a standard car running on gasoline. Assuming that the price of gasoline will remain well above $3.00 a gallon, it will also cost far less to operate the PHEV at current utility rates than a standard car using gasoline only. Estimates are that the cost of operation would be the equivalent of paying $1.00 a gallon of gas.
     Since the batteries could be recharged by the home electric circuit at night, hours when the utilities have excess capacity and rates are lower, it would not require the building of new power stations. Cars not in use during the day could be left plugged in for utilities to take back that stored power during peak hours, crediting the homeowners' electricity bill. During blackouts, a car's battery could also provide power to a residence for at least several hours, if demands are frugal.

Adoption Awaits Mass-Produced Batteries

Although the technology already exists to produce electric cars or PHEVs, the one major limitation in terms of the current technology is an adequate storage battery. Because the batteries used in standard hybrids cannot hold a large enough charge and a new, larger and more advanced lithium battery is not yet mass-produced, the cost of converting a hybrid to a PHEV is currently prohibitive.
     Nevertheless, prototypes have been built which get more than 100 miles per gallon, since gasoline is primarily a backup fuel, and with a range of more than 100 miles on electricity alone. While the initial investment, that is, the additional cost of the lithium batteries for a PHEV, is greater, the cost of electricity is much less than gasoline priced at over $3.00.

But Will Batteries Assault the Environment?

Like every other new technology or solution, there are potential side effects or unanswered questions: Will the mining and processing of minerals for these advanced batteries release carbon or impact the environment? How long will they last and can they be disposed of without damaging the environment? Will the conversion to a national electric-powered automobile fleet overwhelm the electric grid and require new power plants?
     Though the sales of regular hybrids have slowed recently, if the price of gas continues to rise, that may change, and if PHEVs were mass-produced by manufacturers, their price would drop and provide a viable alternative to converting internal combustion engines to ethanol or diesel.
     Ideally, the average American driver who uses his or her car to drive less than 40 miles a day would not use any gasoline, except for longer trips. If a residence has its own solar panels, the PHEV would not be drawing on the electric grid or generating emissions. And if clean diesel or more efficient biofuels were available as backup power, the auto's carbon footprint would be minimal, even when not using electric power on longer trips.
     Plug-in hybrids not only offer a practical solution to global warming and energy independence within our transportation system, but combined with more renewable sources of power and the development of more advanced biofuels than corn ethanol, would significantly reduce our greenhouse gas emissions.

Hydrogen: Far Off and Probably Impractical

While hydrogen offers some promise as a fuel, its practical development requires overcoming major obstacles, which may take decades. Since hydrogen can be converted to electricity, it might eventually be used to provide the electricity to charge batteries in PHEVs rather than as a fuel in the car itself. Meanwhile, just increasing the efficiency of our current car fleet by 25% would eliminate the daily importation of millions of barrels of oil and cut greenhouse gas emissions by the same amount.
     Thanks to dedicated individuals and non-profits like Plug In America and the California Cars Initiative, we already have the technological knowledge and extant prototypes to make PHEVs a reality for concerned drivers. Just think of driving by gas stations and ignoring the latest price increases, while sitting in a virtually silent electricity-powered automobile and breathing cleaner air. That would constitute true energy independence, nationally and personally.      - DAW